ISLAMIC JURISPRUDENCE
Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee
Advanced Legal Studies Institute
P. O. Box 3013, Islamabad
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The Problem With the Meaning of Jurisprudence 1
1.2 AFormatoftheGeneralTheoryofLaw..... 3
1.3 A Model for the Study of the General Theory of
¯
ul al-Fiqh ............ 10
1.4 The Subject-matter of Us
Islamic Law or Us
.
.
¯
ul al-Fiqh ........ 14
1.5 TheScopeofThisBook.............. 17
2 The Meaning of Us
.
¯
ul al-Fiqh and Basic Terms 21
2.1 The Literal Meaning of Fiqh ........... 24
2.2 Earlier General Meaning of Fiqh ......... 25
2.3 Later Sh
¯
afi‘ite Definition of Fiqh ......... 26
2.4 Analysis of the Definition of Fiqh ........ 27
2.5 DistinctionsBasedontheDefinition....... 30
2.5.1 Distinction between shar
¯
ı‘ah and fiqh .. 31
2.5.2 Distinction between
mujtahid and faq
¯
ıh . 31
2.5.3 Distinction between ijtih
¯
ad and taql
¯
ıd .. 32
2.5.4 Distinction between a muqallid and a
faq
¯
ıh ................... 32
2.6 A Wider Definition of Fiqh: Criticising the NarrowDefinition
.................. 33
2.6.1 What in reality is the dal
¯
ıl tafs
.
¯
ıl
¯
ı? .... 33
2.6.2 The legal structure of the evidences (adillah)....................
35
2.6.3 Identifying the defects of the narrow
definition................. 38
i
ii Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
2.6.4 Redefining fiqh .............. 40
2.7 Rejection of the Narrow Definition of Fiqh and
itsImpact ..................... 41
2.8 The Meaning of As
.
l ................ 41
2.9 The Nature of the Qaw
¯
a‘id Us
.
¯
uliyyah:theBasis
oftheSchoolsofLaw............... 44
2.9.1 TheMeaningofaSchoolofLaw..... 46
¯
ul al-Fiqh Defined: Combining the Meaning
of Fiqh and Us
2.10 Us
.
.
¯
ul ................. 47
2.11 The Nature of the Qaw
¯
a‘id Fiqhiyyah:AreThese
Evidencestoo? .................. 48
2.12 A Wider Definition of Us
.
ITheH
.
3 The H
.
¯
ul al-Fiqh ........ 51
ukm Shar‘
¯
ı 55
ukm: What is Islamic Law? 61
3.1 The Three Elements of the H
.
ukm Shar‘
¯
ı ..... 62
3.2 The Meaning of the H
.
ukm Shar‘
¯
ı or the Mean-
ingofIslamicLaw................. 63
3.3 The H
.
ukm Takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı—Obligations and Duties . . . 67
3.3.1 The h
.
ukm takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı from the perspective of
¯
ul
¯
ı ................. 68
3.3.2 The h
the us
.
.
ukm takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı from the perspective of
the faq
¯
ıh ................. 69
3.3.3 The h
3.4 The H
.
.
ukm takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı according to the H
.
anaf
¯
ıs 70
ukm Wad
.
‘
¯
ı—DeclaratoryRules ...... 72
3.5 The Distinction Between the H
.
ukm Takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı and
the H
.
ukm Wad
.
‘
¯
ı .................. 73
4 Classification of Rules in Islamic Law 75
4.1 The Meaning of W
¯
ajib (Obligatory Act) and its
DifferentTypes .................. 78
4.1.1 The h
.
ukm or rule for the w
¯
ajib ...... 79
4.2 The Classifications of the W
¯
ajib (Obligatory Act) 80
4.2.1 Classification based on the time avail-
able for performance: mut
.
laq and muqayyad 81
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Contents Islamic Jurisprudence iii
4.2.2 Classification based on the extent of the
requiredact................ 84
4.2.3 Classification based on the subjects who
arerequiredtoperform ......... 85
4.2.4 Classification based on the identification
of the object of the required act . . . 86
4.3 The Meaning of Mand
¯
ub (Recommended Act)
and its DifferentTypes .............. 87
4.3.1 Types of Mand
¯
ub ............. 88
4.4 The Meaning of H
.
ar
¯
am (Prohibited Act) and its
DifferentTypes .................. 90
4.4.1 The types of h
.
ar
¯
am ............ 92
4.5 The Meaning of Makr
¯
uh (Disapproved Act) and
its DifferentTypes ................ 94
4.6 The Meaning of Mub
¯
ah
.
(Permitted Act) and its
DifferentTypes .................. 96
4.
7 The H
.
ukm Wad
.
‘
¯
ı or the Declaratory Rule . . . . 97
4.7.1 Sabab, shart
.
and m
¯
ani‘ .......... 98
4.7.2 S
.
ih
.
h
.
ah, fas
¯
ad and but
.
l
¯
an (validity, viti-
tationandnullity) ............ 101
4.7.3 ‘Az
¯
ımah and rukhs
.
ah (initial rules and
exemptions) ............... 101
4.8 ThePurposeoftheClassification......... 102
¯
akim) 105
5.1 AllahistheTrueSourceofallLaws........ 105
5.2 TheFundamentalNormoftheLegalSystem . . 107
5.3 TheLawandtheInterestofMan......... 108
5 The Lawgiver (H
.
5.3.1 Is Man the sole purpose of creation? . . . 109
5.3.
2 Can we employ mas
.
lah
.
ah (interest) for
newlaws?................. 110
5.4 Are the Shar
¯
ı‘ah and Natural Law Compatible? . 111
6 The Act (Mah
.
k
¯
um F
¯
ıh) 117
6.1 Defining the Mah
.
k
¯
um F
¯
ıh ............ 118
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iv Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
6.2 The Conditions for the Creation of Obligation
(Tak l
¯
ıf ) ...................... 119
6.2.1 The act to be performed or avoided
mustbeknown.............. 119
6.2.2 The subject should be able to perform
theact .................. 120
6.3 The Nature of the Act (Mah
.
k
¯
um F
¯
ıh) ...... 121
6.4 ClassificationoftheH
.
ukm Takl
¯
ıf
¯
ı on the Basis
ofRights...................... 123
6.5 Classification of Duties: Original and Substitutory 127
6.6 TheImportanceoftheClassificationofRights
forIslamicCriminalLaw............. 128
6.7 HumanRightsandOtherClassifications..... 133
6.7.1 Developing the Islamic Theory of Rights
andDuties ................ 133
6.7.2 Theanalysisofrights........... 137
6.7.3 The nature of duties in Islamic law . . . 137
6.7.4 Natural rights and rights given by the law 138
7 The Subject (Mah
.
k
¯
um ‘Alayh) 141
7.1 Ahliyyah orLegalCapacity............ 143
7.1.1 Thetwopartsoflegalcapacity...... 143
7.1.2 Dhimmah andlegalcapacity....... 143
7.2 TheUnderlyingBasesofLegalCapacity..... 144
7.2.1 Ins
¯
aniyyah and ‘Aql ............ 144
7.2.2 Mentalmaturity ............. 145
7.2.3 Legalcapacityandliability........ 146
7.3 CompleteCapacity ................ 147
7.3.1 Legal effects of complete capacity . . . . 147
7.3.2 The stages leading to complete legal ca-
pacity................... 149
7.4 DeficientandImperfectCapacity ........ 149
7.4.1 Casesofdeficientlegalcapacity ..... 150
7.4.2 CasesofImperfectCapacity....... 155
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Contents Islamic Jurisprudence v
8 Causes of Defective Legal Capacity 161
8.1 NaturalCausesofDefectiveCapacity ...... 163
8.1.1 Minority (s
.
ighar)............. 163
8.1.2 Insanity (jun
¯
un) ............. 164
8.1.3 Idiocy (‘atah)............... 165
8.1.4 Sleep and fits of fainting (nawm, ighm
¯
a’) 165
8.1.5 Forgetfulness (nisy
¯
an) .......... 166
8.1.6 Death-illness (marad
.
al-mawt) ..... 166
8.2 AcquiredCausesofDefectiveCapacity...... 170
8.2.1 Intoxication (sukr)............ 170
8.2.2 Jest (hazl)................. 172
8.2.3 Indiscretion (
safah) ........... 173
8.2.4 Coercion and duress (ikr
¯
ah)....... 174
8.2.5 Mistake and ignorance (khat
.
a’, shub-
hah, and jahl)............... 177
II The Primary Sources of Islamic Law 181
9 The Meaning of Primary and Secondary Sources 185
9.1 TheMeaningof“Source”inIslamicLaw..... 186
9.2 TheClassificationoftheSources......... 187
9.2.1 Agreed upon and disputed sources . . . 187
9.2.2 Transmitted and rational sources . . . . 188
9.2.3 Definitiveandprobablesources ..... 189
9.2.4 Primaryandsecondarysources ..... 192
9.3 GradesoftheSources............... 194
10 The Qur’
¯
an 199
10.1 The Qur’
¯
an as the Primary Source of Law . . . . 200
10.1.1 Justification of the Qur’
¯
an as a source . . 202
10.1.2 The recording and revelation of the Qur’
¯
an 203
10.2 Legal strength and indication of ah
.
k
¯
am in the
Qur’
¯
an ......................205
10.3 The kinds of ah
.
k
¯
am in the Qur’
¯
an........206
10.4 Can one text of the Qur’
¯
an abrogate another? . . 207
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vi Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
11 The Sunnah 209
11.1 The Sunnah asaPrimarySource......... 210
11.1.1 Definition of the Sunnah ......... 210
11.1.2 Kinds of Sunnah ............. 212
11.1.3 Justification of the Sunnah as a source
oflaw................... 221
11.1.4 Justification of the different types of
Sunnah .................. 223
11.2 Status of the Sunnah With Respect to the Qur’
¯
an 227
11.2.1 The manner in which the Sunnah lays
down the ah
k
¯
am .............228
11.2.2 Modern views about the relationship
.
between the Qur’
¯
an and the Sunnah ... 231
12 Consensus of Legal Opinion (Ijm
¯
a‘) 235
12.1 The Meaning of Ijm
¯
a‘ ...............236
12.1.1 Technicalorlegalmeaning........ 237
12.1.2 Conditions for the validity of ijm
¯
a‘ ... 237
12.1.3 Types of ijm
¯
a‘ ..............240
12.1.4 The legal force of ijm
¯
a‘ asasource.... 241
12.1.5 The sanad of ijm
¯
a‘ ............245
12.1.6 Likelihood of the occurrence of ijm
¯
a‘ ..246
12.1.7 Cases of ijm
¯
a‘ transmitted in books of fiqh 248
12.1.8 Role of ijm
¯
a‘ in the modern world . . . . 248
III The Secondary Sources of Islamic Law 251
13 Mas
.
lah
.
ah and the Maq
¯
as
.
id al-Shar
¯
ı‘ah 257
13.1 The Meaning of Mas
.
lah
.
ah (Interest) and the
DoctrineofUtility ................ 259
13.1.1 The Meaning of Utility and Bentham . . 260
13.1.2 Mas
.
lah
.
ah inIslamicLaw.........260
13.2 The Classification of Mas
.
lah
.
ah .......... 261
13.2.1 First classification: mas
.
lah
.
ah acknowl-
edged or rejected by the shar
¯
ı‘ah .....262
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Contents Islamic Jurisprudence vii
13.2.2 Second classification: mas
.
lah
.
ah accord-
ingtoitsinnerstrength .........264
13.2.3 Third classification: definitive and prob-
ableinterests ...............265
13.2.4 Fourth classification: public and private
interests..................266
13.3 The Doctrine of Mas
.
lah
.
ah and Maslah
.
ah Mur-
salah: Distinction.................266
13.4 Maq
¯
as
.
id al-Shar
¯
ı‘ah or the Purposes of Islamic
Law ........................267
13.4.1 Whatisbeyondthepurposes?......268
13.4.2 Maq
¯
as
.
id al-shar
¯
ı‘ah andthetexts ....269
13.5 The Nature and Structure of the Purposes of the
Shar
¯
ı‘ah ......................270
13.5.1 Primary purposes in the service of the
Hereafter .................270
13.5.
2 The two faces of the maq
¯
as
.
id ....... 272
13.5.3 Primary and secondary purposes . . . . 274
13.5.4 Priorities within the maq
¯
as
13.5.5 Mas
.
lah
.
id ......276
.
ah, Public Interest and Human
Rights...................279
14 Qiy
¯
as (Analogy) 283
14.1 Definition of Qiy
¯
as ................284
14.2 Elements of Qiy
¯
as ................. 285
14.3 Examples of Qiy
¯
as ................286
14.4 ConditionsPertainingtotheElements......289
14.4.1 Conditions of the as
.
l or the case in the
texts....................289
14.4.2 Conditions pertaining to the h
.
ukm
of
the as
.
l ...................289
14.4.3 Conditions pertaining to the far‘ or new
case needing a h
.
ukm ........... 291
14.4.4 Conditions pertaining to the ‘illah and
meaning of ‘illah .............292
14.5 Types of Anal ogy (Qiy
¯
as).............297
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viii Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
14.5.1 The first type: probable and definitive
or qat
.
‘
¯
ı and z
.
ann
¯
ı .............297
14.5.2 The second type: classification according
to the strength of the h
.
ukm estab-
lished in the far‘ .............298
14.5.3 Qiy
¯
as jal
¯
ı and qiy
¯
as khaf
¯
ı or manifest
andconcealedanalogy..........300
14.6 Justification of qiy
¯
as as a source of Islamic law . . 301
15 Istih
.
14.6.1 Arguments of those who uphold qiy
¯
as .. 301
14.6.2 Arguments of those who reject qiy
¯
as ... 303
s
¯
an (Juristic Preference) 307
15.1 The Meaning of Istih
.
s
¯
an ............. 307
15.1.1 Istih
.
s
¯
an is a method for looking at the
consequencesofadecision........309
15.2 Examples of istih
.
s
¯
an ............... 310
15.3 Types of Istih
.
s
¯
an ................. 311
15.3.1 Distinction between the various types . . 314
15.4 Justification of Istih
16 Istis
.
h
.
s
¯
an .............. 314
.
¯
ab (Presumption of Continuity) 315
¯
ab ............. 315
16.2 The Principles That Form the Basis of Istis
16.1 The Meaning of Istis
.
h
.
¯
ab .. 316
16.2.1 Types of Istis
.
h
.
.
h
.
¯
ab
and Their Legal Validity 317
16.3 Istis
.
h
.
¯
ab al-H
.
¯
al Cannot Establish a New Rule . . . 319
16.4 Istis
.
h
.
¯
ab al-H
.
¯
al and the Islamisation of Laws . . . 320
17 Mas
.
ah Mursalah (Extended Analogy) 321
.
lah
17.1 The Meaning of Mas
.
lah
.
ah Mursalah ....... 321
17.2 The Conditions for the Validity of Mas
.
lah
Mursalah ..................... 323
17.3 Illustrations of Mas
.
lah
.
ah
.
ah Mursalah ....... 324
17.4 The Process of Using Mas
.
lah
17.5 Identifying Mas
.
lah
17.6
Identifying Mas
.
lah
17.7 Justification of Mas
.
lah
.
ah Mursalah .... 326
.
ah That is Ghar
¯
ıb ....... 328
.
ah That is Rejected (Mulgh
¯
a). 330
.
ah Mursalah ........ 331
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Contents Islamic Jurisprudence ix
18 Sadd al-Dhar
¯
ı‘ah (Blocking the Lawful Means to an Unlawful
End) 333
18.1 TypesofLawfulActs ............... 334
18.2 Disagreement of Jurists About the Legality of
thePrinciple ................... 335
19 Other Secondary Sources 339
19.1 Companion’s Opinion (Qawl al-S
.
ah
.
¯
ab
¯
ı).....340
19.1.1 Views of those who accept it as a source . 340
19.1.2 Views of those who do not consider it
binding..................342
19.1.3 Opinions of the Followers of the Com-
panions (T
¯
abi‘
¯
un) ............342
19.2 Shar‘ Man Qablan
¯
a (EarlierScriptures) .....342
19.2.1 Typesofearlierlaws ........... 343
19.2.2 Reason why the earlier laws are not
binding.................. 343
19.3 Custom (‘Urf ) ..................344
19.3.1 Types of ‘urf ...............344
19.3.2 Can the Western laws obtaining in Pak-
istanbetreatedascustom?........346
IV Ijtih
¯
ad (Interpretation) 349
20 The Meaning of Ijtih
¯
ad and its Modes 353
20.1 The Meaning of Ijtih
¯
ad .............. 354
20.2 Ijtih
¯
ad is not Independent of the Qur’
¯
an and the
Sunnah ...................... 355
20.3 The Task of the Mujtahid ............. 355
20.4 Basic Assumptions Made by the Mujtahid .... 356
20.5 Tex t s Tha t a r e not Subj e c t t o Ijtih
¯
ad ....... 358
20.6 The Three Modes of Ijtih
¯
ad ............360
20.6.1 Thefirstmode ..............360
20.6.2 Thesecondmode ............360
20.6.3 Thethirdmode.............. 361
20.7 The Complete Process of Ijtih
¯
ad ......... 361
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x Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
ukm of Ijtih
¯
ad anditsTypes........ 362
20.9 The Qualifications of the Mujtahid ........ 363
20.8 The H
.
20.9.1 Who is a mujtahid today? ........366
20.10 Ijtih
¯
ad a Legislative Function: The Need for an
IslamicTheoryofLegislation........... 367
21 The First Mode of Ijtih
¯
ad: Interpreting the Texts 371
21.1 The Concept of Bay
¯
an (Elaboration)....... 374
21.1.1 Bay
¯
an taqr
¯
ır (complementary expres-
sionorelaboration) ........... 377
21.1.2 Bay
¯
an tafs
¯
ır (enabling expression) . . . . 377
21.1.3 Bay
¯
an taghy
¯
ır (elaboration by exception) 378
21.1.4 Bay
¯
an tabd
¯
ıl
(conditional expression) . . 379
21.1.5 Bay
¯
an d
.
ar
¯
urah (elaboration by necessity) 379
21.2 LiteralInterpretationoftheTexts ........380
21.2.1 Thestructureofinterpretation ..... 381
21.2.2 The four general literal methods of es-
tablishing the ah
.
k
¯
am (dal
¯
al
¯
at) ...... 383
21.2.3 The literal methods of establishing the
ah
.
k
¯
am practised by the Sh
¯
afi‘
¯
ıs ..... 392
21.2.4 Amr (command) and nahy (proscription):
the nature and type of h
.
ukm es-
tablished .................396
21.2.5 The number or categories affected by
the h
.
ukm: ‘
¯
amm; kh
¯
as
.
s
.
; mushtarak; and
mu’awwal
.................398
21.2.6 The clarity or ambiguity with which the
h
.
ukm isestablished............402
21.2.7 The effectoftheuseofwordsintheactualormetaphoricalmeanings
.....403
22 The Second Mode of Ijtih
¯
ad: Reasoning by Analogy 407
22.1 Moving From the First Mode of Ijtih
¯
ad to the
Second ......................408
22.2 The Methods of Discovering the Underlying
Cause (Mas
¯
alik al-‘Illah) .............410
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Contents Islamic Jurisprudence xi
22.2.1 Discovering the cause in the new case:
tah
.
q
¯
ıq al-man
¯
at
.
............. 412
22.3 AnalogyandtheModernJurist.......... 413
23 The Third Mode of Ijtih
¯
ad: Employing the Maq
¯
as
Shar
¯
ı‘ah 415
23.1 Moving From the Second Mode of Ijtih
¯
ad to the
Third: the ‘Illah and the H
.
ikmah ......... 416
23.2 The Interplay Between General Principles and
the Maq
¯
as
.
id al-
.
id al-Shar
¯
ı‘ah .............. 419
23.3 AValueOrientedJurisprudence .........420
23.3.1 Distinction between the value system in
Islamic law and Western jurisprudence . 422
23.4 Mas
.
lah
.
ah andtheModernJurist......... 423
24 Abrogation (Naskh) and Preference (Tar j
¯
ıh
.
) 425
24.
1 The Doctrine of Abrogation (Naskh).......426
24.1.1 Examples of repealing and overriding laws 427
24.1.2 The wisdom behind the doctrine of ab-
rogation .................428
24.1.3 Distinction between naskh (abrogation)
and takhs
.
¯
ıs
.
(restriction) .........428
24.1.4 Typesofabrogation ...........429
24.1.5 The attributes of the abrogating and ab-
rogatedevidences ............430
24.2 Justification for the Doctrine of Abrogation . . . 430
24.2.1 Comparing the Impact of Abrogation
andRestriction.............. 431
24.3 The Rules of Preference (Tar j
¯
ıh
.
) ......... 432
24.3.1 Reconciliation (jam‘)........... 433
VTheFaq
¯
ıh and His Methodology 435
25 Taql
¯
ıd as a Methodology 439
25.1 Taql
¯
ıd as a Basis for the Islamic Theory of Adju-
dication...................... 441
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xii Islamic Jurisprudence Contents
25.2 The Literal Meaning of Taql
¯
ıd ..........442
25.3 The Technical Meanings of Taql
¯
ıd ........442
25.4 The H
.
ukm of Taql
¯
ıd and Ijtih
¯
ad .........443
25.5 Taql
¯
ıd in Law is an Exemption from the General
RuleofProhibition................444
25.6 Taql
¯
ıd inthePakistaniLegalSystem .......446
25.7 Taql
¯
ıd andtheIslamicLegalSystem .......446
25.7.1 Thegradesofthejurists .........448
25.7.2 The mujtahid and the faq
¯
ıh .......450
25.8 The Layman Moving FromOne School to Another 452
26 The Sources of Islamic Law for the Faq
¯
ıh 455
26.1 The Task of the Faq
¯
ıh ............... 457
26
.2 The Output/Result of Ijtih
¯
ad is a Source for the
Faq
¯
ıh .......................458
26.3 The Established Principles of Islamic Law are a
Source for the Faq
¯
ıh ............... 461
26.3.1 Principles stated explicitly or impliedly
inthetexts ................ 461
26.3.2 Principles derived by the jurist from a
number of existing cases in the law . . . 464
26.3.3 Examples of principles from al-Dabb
¯
us
¯
ı. 466
26.4 Al-Dabb
¯
us
¯
ı on the Methodology of the Faq
¯
ıh ..470
26.5 The Faq
¯
ıh May Formulate a New Principle if it
MeetsthePrescribedConditions.........472
26.6 Conclusion ....................472
21 Select Bibliography 473
21 Detailed Bibliography 477
22 Glossary 515
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