26 Golden Rules for
Writing Well
begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop
to keep a string of items apart.
begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop
to keep a string of items apart.
How to
summarize
say the same thing in fewer words
1. A summary
– or précis – is a shorter version of a longer piece of writing. The summary
captures all the most important parts of the original, but expresses them in a
[much] shorter space.
2.
Summarizing exercises are usually set to test your understanding of the
original, and your ability to re-state its main purpose.
3.
Summarizing is also a useful skill when gathering information or doing
research.
4. The summary should be expressed – as far as possible – in
your own words. It’s not enough to merely copy out
parts of the original.
5. The
question will usually set a maximum number of words. If not, aim for something
like one tenth of the original. [A summary which was half the length of the
original would not be a summary.]
6. Read the
original quickly, and try to understand its main subject or purpose.
7. Then you
will need to read it again to understand it in more detail.
8. Underline
or make a marginal note of the main issues. Use a highlighter if this helps.
9. Look up
any words or concepts you don’t know, so that you understand the author’s sentences
and how they relate to each other.
10. Work
through the text to identify its main sections or arguments. These might be
expressed as paragraphs or web pages.
11. Remember
that the purpose [and definition] of a paragraph is that it deals with one issue
or topic.
12. Draw up a list of the topics – or make a diagram. [A simple
picture of boxesor a spider diagram can often be
helpful.]
13. Write a
one or two-sentence account of each section you identify. Focus your attention
on the main point. Leave out any illustrative examples.
14. Write a
sentence which states the central idea of the original text.
15. Use this as the for
writing a paragraph which combines all the points you have made.
16. The
final summary should concisely and accurately capture the central meaning of
the original.
17. Remember
that it must be in your own words. By writing in this way, you help to
re-create the meaning of the original in a way which makes sense for you.
Example
Original text
‘At a typical football match we are likely to see players committing deliberate fouls, often behind the referee’s back. They might try to take a throw-in or a free kick from an incorrect but more advantageous positions in defiance of the clearly stated rules of the game. They sometimes challenge the rulings of the referee or linesmen in an offensive way which often deserves exemplary punishment or even sending off. No wonder spectators fight amongst themselves, damage stadiums, or take the law into their own hands by invading the pitch in the hope of affecting the outcome of the match.’ [100 words] |
Summary
Unsportsmanklike behaviour by footballers may cause hooliganism among spectators. [9 words] |
Some
extra tips
Even though notes are only for your own use, they will
be more effective if they are recorded clearly and neatly. Good layout will
help you to recall and assess material more readily. If in doubt use the
following general guidelines.
1. Before you even start, make a note of your source(s). If this is
a book, an article, or a journal, write the following information at the head
of your notes:Author, title, publisher,
publication date, and edition of book.
2. Use
loose-leaf A4 paper. This is now the international standard for almost all
educational printed matter. Don’t use small notepads. You will find it easier
to keep track of your notes if they fit easily alongside your other study
materials.
3. Write
clearly and leave a space between each note. Don’t try to cram as much as
possible onto one page. Keeping the items separate will make them easier to
recall. The act of laying out information in this way will cause you to assess
the importance of each detail.
4. Use a new
page for each set of notes. This will help you to store and identify them
later. Keep topics separate, and have them clearly titled and labelled to
facilitate easy recall.
5. Write on
one side of the page only. Number these pages. Leave the blank sides free for
possible future additions, and for any details which may be needed later.
How to
improve your grammar
basic guidelines for better writing
The quickest way to is
to simplify your writing as much as possible.
Grammar is a
combination of a number of different aspects of language
·
sentence construction
·
punctuation
·
agreement and syntax
The best
approach is to tackle these issues one at a time.
Don’t try to
improve your grammar by memorising rules – because there are many exceptions to
most of them.
The tips below are often taught in basic writing courses from
Sentences
In most
writing, all normal sentences should begin with a capital letter and end with a
full stop.
A normal sentence in English usually contains at least three
elements: asubject, a verb,
and an object.
Subject
|
Verb
|
Object
|
The cat
|
eats
|
the
goldfish
|
My friend
|
is
|
tall
|
Some sheep
|
are
|
black
|
If you are
in any doubt at all, follow this pattern. Sentences which go out of grammatical
control often lack one of these elements, or they have them placed in a
different order.
Short,
clear, and simple sentences are usually more effective than those which are
long and complex. Avoid piling up clause upon clause.
In the majority of cases, you should aim for clarity and
simplicity in your written style. If in doubt, remember this rule: Keep
it short. Keep it simple.
You should
avoid starting sentences with words such as ‘Again’, ‘Although’, ‘But’, ‘And’,
‘Also’, and ‘With’. These words normally belong in the ‘middle’ of a
sentence, not at its beginning. Sentences which start with a conjunction are often left incomplete.
sentence, not at its beginning. Sentences which start with a conjunction are often left incomplete.
Punctuate your work firmly, making a clear distinction in your
writing between marks such as the comma, the semicolon,
and the full stop.
Punctuation
The comma [,] is used to show a slight pause in a sentence.
It is also
used to separate words, clauses, or phrases.
He will never do it, whatever he
says.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.
She bought some butter, a pint of milk, and some jam.
Cars should turn left here, whilst vans should turn right.
It separates
two items when the first is not closely associated with the second:
She is a famous singer, whilst her
husband remains unknown.
A very
common use for the comma is to separate the items in a list:
The box contained a book, some
pencils, and a knife.
The semicolon [ ; ] marks a long pause in a sentence.
It is half
way between a comma and a colon.
Semicolons
are used between clauses which could stand alone, but which are closely
related.
He ran with his shirt over his
head; he had forgotten his umbrella once again.
She couldn’t dance in her favourite ballroom; it was being renovated.
She couldn’t dance in her favourite ballroom; it was being renovated.
Semicolons
are also used to punctuate mixed lists in continuous prose writing:
Four objects lay on the desk: a
large book; a spiral-bound notepad; a glass vase containing flowers; and a
silver propelling pencil.
If you are
in any doubt at all concerning the correct use of the semicolon – then avoid
using it entirely.
It is perfectly possible to write clearly and effectively using
only the
comma and the full stop.
comma and the full stop.
The full stop [.] (sometimes called the period) is a punctuation
mark indicating a strong pause.
It is used
most commonly at the end of a complete sentence – like this one.
This is a short sentence. This is
another.
It happened suddenly in 1996.
There are two reasons for this (in my opinion).
It happened suddenly in 1996.
There are two reasons for this (in my opinion).
The only
common exception to this rule occurs when the sentence is a question or an
exclamation.
Is this question really necessary?
What a mess!
What a mess!
Notice that
both of these punctuation marks include a full stop.
Spelling
If you are
not sure about the correct spelling of a word, look it up in a good dictionary.
The best
ways to improve your spelling are:
·
learn commonly mis-spelled words
·
learn the common rules of spelling
·
learn good spelling strategies
The most commonly mis-spelled words are probably there/their,
its/it’s, to/too/two, and are/our.
This problem
is caused because these words sound the same as each other. Here’s how to tell
them apart.
There refers to a
place, whereas their means belonging to them.
The table is over there, in the
corner [place]
We are going to their house [belonging]
We are going to their house [belonging]
Its means
belonging to, whereas It’s is a shortened form of It is.
The dog is in its basket [belonging]
It’s too late now [It is]
It’s too late now [It is]
To means
‘towards something’, too means ‘very or in addition’, and two is the number 2.
We are going to the concert
[towards]
It was too cold for swimming [very cold]
He ate two chocolate bars [number 2]
It was too cold for swimming [very cold]
He ate two chocolate bars [number 2]
Agreement
and Syntax
There must
be grammatical logic or coherence in the links between parts of a sentence.
This is
called ‘case agreement’.
If the
subject of a sentence is singular, then the verb form must be singular as well.
The shop [singular] opens at nine
o’clock.
On Thursdays the shops [plural] open late.
On Thursdays the shops [plural] open late.
Sometimes
confusion occurs because a statement begins in the singular but then drifts
into the plural
Wrong
It can be argued that a person has the right to know when they are dying.
It can be argued that a person has the right to know when they are dying.
The easiest
solution to this problem is to make the subject plural and its verb plural as
well.
Correct
It can be argued that people have the right to know when they are dying.
It can be argued that people have the right to know when they are dying.
Syntax is the in
a sentence.
It concerns
both word order and agreement in the relationship between words.
The following
statements follow normal English word order:
The cat sat on the mat.
My old brown leather suitcase.
My old brown leather suitcase.
The following statements do not follow normal English word order:
The cat on the mat sat.
My brown leather old suitcase.
My brown leather old suitcase.
How to
improve your spelling
tips and guidance notes on basic spelling skills
1. You canskills by reading and writing as much as
possible – andchecking your written work.
2. If you are not sure about the correct spelling of a word, look
it up in a good
3. The best
ways to improve your spelling are:
·
learn commonly mis-spelled words
·
learn the common rules of spelling
·
learn good spelling strategies
Commonly
mis-spelled words
4. The most commonly mis-spelled words are probably there/their, its/it’s,to/too/two, and are/our.
5. This problem is caused because these words sound the same as each other. Here’s how to
tell them apart.
6. There refers
to a place, whereas their means belonging
to them.
The table
is over there, in the
corner
there refers to a place
We are
going to their house
their means belonging to them
7. Its means belonging
to, whereas It’s is a
shortened form of It is.
The dog
is in its basket
its means belonging to the dog
It’s too late now
It’s means It is too late
8. To means towards,
whereas too means very or in addition, and two is the number 2.
We are
going to the concert
here to means towards
It was too cold for swimming
means it was very cold
He ate two chocolate bars
means the number 2
9. Are is
part of the verb ‘to be’ – as in we are, whereas our means belonging
to us.
We are in the same class at school
This is the verb ‘to be’, as in I am/we are
We have
flowers in our garden
That is, the
garden belongs to us
Common
spelling rules
10. Almost all words have only one correct spelling – but there are
occasional exceptions. Judgement for instance can also be spelled judgment.
11. One of the easiest rules to remember is I
before E, except after C –
but you need to be careful, because there are plenty of exceptions.
I before E
believe – chief – friend – thief
C followed by EI
ceiling – receive – deceit – conceive
Exceptions
either – neither – foreign – height – seize – leisure
Doubling
of consonants
12. If a word ends in a vowel and a single consonant, double the
consonant before adding -ing or -ed.
13. If the vowel is unstressed, or if there are two vowels, do not double the consonant.
14. If the word ends in -c, change the -c to -ck before adding the ending.
Commonly
mis-spelled words
The
following words are often spelt wrongly. There is no short way round this
problem. You simply have to learn the correct spelling.
acceptable – double c, not -ible.
accommodation – double c and double m
achieve – i before e except after c
assess – two lots
of double s
believe – i before e except after c
communicate – double m
convenient – i before e except after c
definite – -ite, not -ate
disappear – double p [dis+appear]
disappoint – double p [dis+appoint]
necessary – one c, double s
receive – i before e, except after c
recommend – double c [re+commend]
stationary – means not moving – use a
stationery – paper we
write on – use e
success – double c, double s
weird – an
exception to the rule
NB! One final
point. Using a spelling-checker is not cheating. You should use one to check
your work – and learn correct spellings at the same time.
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